1	Effective Grading— A Tool for Learning and Assessment Based on the Work of Barbara Walvoord , University of Notre Dame & Virginia Johnson Anderson, Towson University
2	Definition of Grading The process by which a teacher assesses student learning through classroom tests and assignments Context in which good teachers establish that process The dialogue that surrounds grades and defines their meaning to various audiences
3	Grading Includes Tailoring the test and assignment to learning goals Establishing criteria and standards Helping students acquire the skills and knowledge that they need Assessing students’ learning over time Shaping student motivation Feeding back results so that students can learn from their mistakes Communicating about students’ learning to the students and to other audiences Using results to plan future teaching methods
4	Grading Is a Context-dependent, Complex Process That Serves Multiple Roles Evaluation A fair, valid and trustworthy judgment Communication To students, employers, graduate schools and others Highly emotional Ongoing between students and teachers
5	Grading Is a Context-dependent, Complex Process That Serves Multiple Roles (Continued) Motivation How students study What students focus on How much time students spend How involved they become in the course Organization Brings closure Creates transition to the next topic
6	Faculty Engage in “ Stealth Assessment” If we do not make our learning goals, tests, criteria, and standards explicit and understandable to students and outside agencies (legislatures, boards, accrediting agencies) the possibility that some of the control we currently exercise in our classrooms will be taken from us increases.
7	The Challenge Is to Manage the Grading Process, Not Avoid It Three common false hopes: The false hope of total objective The false hope of total agreement about grading The false hope of one dimensional student motivation for learning
8	Principles of Building a Grading System Principle 1 - Appreciate the complexity of grading; use it as a tool for learning It is socially constructed and context dependent—meaning no system is always right by some indisputable standard The greatest good of grading is to serve the needs of participants and to bring about useful change
9	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 2 – Substitute judgment for objectivity Complete objectivity is a myth Our job is to render an informed and professional judgment to the best of our ability Grading must be viewed in the context of the institution, the students and their future employer
10	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 3 – Distribute time effectively Spend enough time to make a thoughtful and professional judgment and then move on Studies show that faculty within the same discipline will grade the same work differently – and even the same professor will grade a piece of a student’s work differently at different times
11	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 4 – Be open to change The average grade today in the USA is a “B” – so a grad of “C” communicates a different meaning to students, parents and employers than it did then years ago. You cannot address grade inflation as an individual – it needs to be institutional and national discussion; until it happens, “use the coin of the realm”
12	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 5 – Listen and observe Grades do not mean the same things to you as they do to your students Be clear and explicit to your students what meaning you attach to the grade you give them In establishing grades you are invoking a set of cultural beliefs and values that will shape the learning potential of your grading process
13	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 6 – Communicate and Collaborate with Students Grading should not provoke antagonism Grading is about helping learners improve – this is what needs to be communicated
14	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 7 – Integrate Grading with other Key Processes Grading cannot be separated from planning, teaching and interacting in your classroom
15	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 8 – Seize the Teachable Moment Informal feedback and discussion about grades can be significant events for students, affecting their attitudes and their learning (O’Neil and Todd-Mancillas, 1992) Grades can be highly emotional – what do you want the student to learn from those human moments when they are upset, unhappy or proudly pleased
16	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 9 – Make Student Learning the Primary Goal Learners need reality checks – they need to know how professionals would grade their work Get students to see the learning that comes from the evaluation process – show them that you will not patronize them or make assumptions that hey can’t handle the truth Grades can interfere with learning if they are not placed in the proper context in the classroom
17	Seven Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education (Chickering and Gamson 1987) Encourage student-faculty contact Encourage cooperation among students Encourage active learning Give prompt feedback Emphasizes the time the student devotes to the task Communicates high expectation Respects diverse talents and ways of learning Most of these in some way involve grading!
18	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 10 – Be a Teacher First, a Gatekeeper Last Our entire effort, throughout the semester, should be pointed toward understanding our students, believing in them, figuring out what they need, and helping them to learn, no matter what their background.
19	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 11 – Encouraged Learning-Centered Motivation Grades are a powerful motivator, but they come with a history for many students Faculty must battle against ingrained ideas that: Some students hold that they are powerless to affect their grade That their success is due to luck That failure is due to circumstances beyond their control These attitudes toward grades more than grades themselves affect student motivation to learn. (Milton, Pollio, and Edson 1986)
20	Principles of Building a Grading System (Continued) Principle 12 – Emphasize Student Involvement Student involvement is the bottom line in learning – how can you make your grading system to it enhances student involvement
21	Setting Up a Grading System Consider what you want you students to learn: “At the end of this course I want my students to be able to . . . .” Don’t be afraid to write down goals that you may not be able to measure exactly – pin down how you recognize those qualities in students’ work
22	Setting Up a Grading System Select Assignments and Tests that Measure What you Value Most National studies indicate faculty tend to focus on lower level knowledge and skills in testing and assignments even though they place high value on advance thinking skills A test or assignment is only a valid measure if it elicits from your students the kinds of learning you want to measure Be crystal clear about what you want students to do – making certain they know how to do it - i.e, lit review, term paper, summary, annotated bibliography
23	Choose Assignments That are Interesting and Challenging to Your Students If you want their best work – give students something to do that is of interest to them, authentic, challenging, and that they can have input into designing
24	Use Peer Collaboration Using group work has an additional benefit of reducing the number of assignments that needs to be graded “The strongest single source of influence on cognitive and affective development in college is the student’s peer group – it is powerful because it has the capacity to involve the student more intensely in the educational experience.” (Alexander Astin, UCLA) Students can, with guidance, be excellent reviewers of each others work
25	Construct a Course Outline Lay out all of your assignments and test from the beginning to end of the class so you can see if these activities answer the question: “Is this what I want the students to do to learn this course material.” The question not “What should I cover in this course? But, “What should my students learn to do?” Research suggest that assignment-centered courses enhance the development of higher order reasoning and critical thinking skills moreeffectively than courses centered around text, lecture, and coverage. (Kurfiss, 1988)
26	Construct a Course Outline (Continued) State what you want the students to learn List the major assignments and test that will both teach and test the learning Describe the basic type of tests and assignments and some of the salient characteristics What skills and knowledge will the tests measure
27	Check Tests and Assignments for Fit and Feasibility Do my test and assignments fit the kind of learning I most want? Is the workload I am planning for myself and my students reasonable, strategically placed, and sustainable? Be high specific in making assignments Example of vague assignment: Make journal entries applying sociological analysis to something you have observed Students’ ideas about “journal maybe a “diary” or other casual from of writing. If you want analysis, you need to name it an analysis paper and show them a model and teach them how to write an analysis paper – this is key!
28	Course Assignments May Need to be Developmental Helping students build a set of skills and thinking process over the length of the course Example: Assigning parts of a larger assignment rather than the whole assignment Do an annotated bibliography Do an abstract Do an introduction Building gradually will produce a better end product
29	Grading and Motivation Research talks about three categories of students: Grade-Oriented Students – They focus just on what needs to be done to get the grade they want or they need the grade over their head to get motivated to do the work. Learning-Oriented Students – Focus on the enjoyment and challenge of the learning, want to discuss and use the course information with others, studying is not seen as a chore Learned Helplessness – Why work hard? It never pays off. Even if I try, I don’t do well. I can’t control what happens to me.
30	Motivational Keys Student-to-student contact Student-to-faculty contact Building community in the classroom Clarity of what is needed for success Manageable steps to reaching success Teach what you will grade Ensure that class time is used for the most important learning
31	"Teach not to the test" Teach not to the test, but to the criteria by which you will evaluate the test. (Deborah DeZure, EMU)
32	Practical Motivation Suggestions Use assignments that have the potential to have a long lasting impression on the students Grade preparatory work Are reading assignments completed before class? Are homework problems completed? Do they have their discussion questions written out? Grade occasionally Keep a journal – grade randomly. Keep a portfolio of homework writings – grade randomly and require rewrites if poor done Grad 10 times a semester – don’t say when – grades equal a meaningful grade for the overall course
33	Using Student Work in Your Teaching Have students transfer their writing to an overhead and use it for diagnosis, or critiquing by the class – no names are used Have students put discussion questions from readings on overheads – show to class for discussion Work math problems on overheads – critique it in class Have all group work answers written on overheads – so group can present their findings
34	Videotape Yourself as a Guide for Students Doing Work Outside of Class If the reading is difficult and complex, video tutorials that students can view outside of class as they do their reading will help. Electronic tutorials – Powerpoint can be narrated
35	Establishing Criteria and Standards for Grading Primary Trait Analysis – PTA: It is highly explicit and criterion referenced. PTA includes: Identifying the factors and traits that will count for the scoring (such as thesis, material and methods, use of color, eye contact with client, etc.) Build a scale for scoring the student’s performance against those criteria.
36	Constructing a PTA Select a set of former assignments or papers across a range of quality Examine them for the characteristics that you want to measure The quality level you will expect. In other words, what is realistic to expect.
37	What Are the Primary Traits or Factors I Want to Measure? These are what will count for grading the students’ work – usually expressed as nouns or noun phrases. Example: Does the paper have a: Title Introduction Scientific format demands Methods and materials selection Experimental design
38	Designing a PTA Another way to do this is to descript an”A” assignment and a “C” assignment in writing Talk with colleagues about what they want and expect from a given assignment Explain to a colleague why you graded a former paper as you did
39	STEPS to a PTA For each trait that you identify, construct a 2-5 point scale (each point having a descriptive statement) Example: A 5 means – thesis is limited enough to treat within the scope of the essay and is clear to the reader. It enters the dialogue of the discipline as reflected in the student’s sources It does so at a level that show synthesis and original thought It neither exactly repeats any of the student’s sources nor states the obvious
40	Next Step Take each description and practice grading some former assignments to determine if the PTA meets your needs. Ask a colleague to do the same and compare findings. Revise the descriptions as needed.
41	Why Take the Time to Do a PTA? Makes grading more consistent and fair Saves time – once it’s clear what to look for, grading is faster. Helps diagnosis student’s strengths and weaknesses Can track changes in a student’s performance over several semesters – has improvements in teaching improved student performance – A KEY ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE
42	Why Take the Time to Do a PTA? (Continued) Allows others to grade the papers May allow groups of faculty to agree on a common measure for a program trait To introduce greater distinctions into one’s grading – can more clearly delineate between students’ work
43	Describing Types of Papers and Assignments PTA’s can be used to develop written statements that describe the various types of papers or assignments that a teacher receives from students These written statements address the errors, limitations, structural problems as well as the positives about the work These statements are then attached to the assignment rather then writing comments or can be attached with comments An experienced teacher can identify the variations between students’ work fairly easily – prewritten comments save a great deal of time
44	PTA’s and Grading Option One Teacher may build a grading scale that is less complex than the Primary Trait Scale, but is based on it This might mean that the PTA would be used for 60% or 80% of the grade, but other factors would also be considered
45	PTA’s and Grading (Continued) Option Two The teacher may use only the PTA Scale Each item on the scale, however, may be weighted differently in correspondence to its importance Example: 5 points for the title 25 points for experimental design
46	Gateway Approach Students are required to meet certain standards before the PTA system will be applied to their work Example: Must have fewer than 2 spelling or grammar errors per page Must be typed, double-spaced Must be five pages in length Failure to meet these minimums means the paper fails or is returned to be fixed
47	Calculating Course Grades A model for calculating course grades is not just a mathematical formula; it is an expression of your values and goals. Different models will express different relationships among types of student performance. Different models will have different effects on how students perceive the reward system in the course.
48	Model One Weighted Letter Grades – All test and assignments are assigned letter grades Example Tests – Letter grades averaged together count 40% of final grade Field Projects – Letter grades averaged together count 30% of final grade Final Exam – Letter grade counts 20% of final grade Class Participating – Letter grade counts 10% of final grade
49	Formula Computation for Figuring Grades Test Average = B = 3 honor points x 4 (or 40% of the course) = 12 honor points Projects = A = 4 honor points x 3 (or 30% of the course) = 12 honor points Final Exam = C = 2 honor points x 1 (10%) = 2 honor points Total = 30 honor points divided by 10 = 3.0 honor points or a B for the course
50	Grading Scale 93-100 = A 92-85 = B 84-78 = C 77-70 = D 69 = E Based on 100 points: 40% B would equal 92% to 85% of 40 --or 37 to 34 points 30% A would equal 100% to 93% of 30 --or 30 to 28 points 20% C would equal 84% or 78% or 10-- or 8 points High Total = 91 points or a B in the course Low Total = 86 points or a B in the course
51	Grading The underlying pedagogical assumption of letter grades is that several kinds of performances are distinct from one another and should be valued differently. The use of letter grades minimize the variance of performance within a graded area, ie, no high B’s or low B’s, just a B. Research suggests that this is a more accurate reflection of a performance – a single score like 85 more likely reflects a performance somewhere between 82 and 88. (Measurement and Assessment in Schools, 1999) This system also allows for weighting work done early in the semester less than later work where skills have been learned and expectations are higher. (Example figure skating – short program worth significatly less than long program.)
52	Model Two Accumulated Points: Tests = 0-40 points Projects = 0-30 points Final Exam = 0-20 points Participation = 0-10 points Grading Scale 93-100 = A 92-85 = B 84-78 = C 77-70 = D 69-0 = E
53	Model Two (Continued) The underlying pedagogical assumption is that, to some extent at least, good or poor performance in one area can be offset by work in other areas.
54	Model Two (Continued) Example: Student 1 Student 2 Tests 40 25 15 Projects 30 25 25 Exam 20 15 15 Partic. 10 5 5 Both students did poorly on the test and both would have received an F grade (Student 1 a 63%, Student 2 a 38%) had the points been translated into grades. However, under this system Student 1 is rewarded for his “higher” F and as a result would have passed this class while Student 2 would have failed this class
55	Model Two Adaptation of This System This system can be enhanced by the teacher offering total points that are significantly higher than are needed for an “A” in the course but maintaining the same grading scale Example: 120 points would be available in the course, but only 93 would be needed for an A grade. This would allow a student who earned maximum points in one area to offset poorer performance in another area. This also takes into account that some students’ areas of expertise (writing, speaking, taking multiple choice tests) can be valued while their weaknesses don’t completed do them in.
56	Definitional System To earn a particular course grade a student must exceed the standard for each category of work in the class – failure in one category means failure for the class. Example: Flying an airplane – landings and take offs need to be A’s. This system is designed to prevent performance in one area of the course to compensate for other areas in any way.
57	Definitional System (Continued) Example of Definitional Grading Graded Work Pass-Fail Work Course Grade A average pass for 90% or more = A B average pass for 83% or more -= B C average pass for 75% or more = C D average pass for 65% or more = D If a student gets an A in graded work but only a 65% in a pass-fail work, they get a D in the course.
58	Definitional System (Continued) In this Definitional System the teacher seeks to have students understand that the definition of an A or B student that the teacher uses may include things beyond tests and other graded work For example certain participatory behaviors – like being prepared for class, having homework done daily or have journal entries completed daily are so important to the learning process that a student can not earn an A without doing them. This system needs careful explaining to the students as they are not familiar with it. (It should reflect authentic evaluation process of the workplace.)
59	Definitional System (Continued) Students need to understand that they are not being “knocked down to their lowest grade” but failed to meet the definition of the higher grade. An Analogy for Students: No matter how many times you put the basketball through the hoop, if you do so while charging into another player the basket will not count; so being a great shooter is not enough to be effective – you must also follow the other rules.
60	Penalties in Grading Penalties place a premium on punishment for infractions – they are designed to bring the students’ attention to something that is very important to the teacher and will likely also carry a heavy penalty in the outside world. Penalties usually cause students’ ire to arise and thus should be used with great care. They can also be demoralizing. It is important to convey that work is penalized but that does not change the respect the teach has for the student as a learner (with the exception of plagiarism and other forms of cheating.)
61	Extra Credit in Grading Extra Credit is useful in situations where the instructor wants to let students compensate for failure in one area of the course. Extra credit should be reinforcing to the material that was not well learned, the area of the class in which failure occurred (or poor performance) Instructors may want to have ceiling or floor to the value of extra credit – it can only raise your grade one-half grade, etc.
62	Developmental Grading vs. Unit-based Approached In the developmental approach work at the end of the course demonstrates the level of proficiency or “development” and is given more value than earlier work where the student may have struggled to understand the skill or process. Learning is seen as a process where the end product is more important than the failed tries along the way.
63	Developmental Grading vs. Unit-Based Approached Drawbacks to this approach: Some students will no work hard at the beginning thinking they can “grab the gold ring” at the end of the course. Some students will be uncomfortable having so much of the grade depend on the final performance – although this may in fact be an authentic experience reflective of the workplace. Some students want more of a fix on their grade than this system will allow.
64	Key to Developmental Approach It should be used if it reflects the authentic way in which students will be evaluated in the workplace – often the final product is all that matters – effort is not highly rewarded.
65	Unit-Based Approach The course is made up of discrete units of content with its own individual value – none having an significantly great value and another. Ex. History course. This system does not give greater value to a student improving his/her skills or abilities over the length of the course.
66	Fudge Factor Approach A variation to all of these systems is the instructor choosing to hold back 10% of the grade that he/she can award based on a variety of reasons: Outstanding progress and growth Excellent participating Extreme effort (if that is value) Completion of all assignments Others
67	Contract Grading or Contract Learning According to Knowles (1986) a learning contract typically specifies: The knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values to be acquired by the learner (learning objectives). How these objectives are to be accomplished (learning resources and strategies). The target date for their accomplishment. What evidence will be presented to demonstrate that the objectives have been accomplished. How this evidence will be judged or validated.
68	In Academic Settings The contract also specifies how much credit to be awarded and what grade is to be given (Pass-Fail etc.) Contract Grading Maximize student choice and responsibility Tailoring work to the individual needs, background, learning style – voice in establishing learning goals. Student helps to establish the learning goals, standards and criteria. Contract connotes obligation on the part of the student to do their work it is. Takes more teacher time Changes the dynamic of the classroom.
69	Benefits to the Learner The learner has both choice an voice in selecting alternatives for meeting learning objectives – aids student involvement. The learner is given opportunities to exercise responsibility through making commitments to complete personal learning goals. Personal involvement in learning is stressed through individualized and independent learning activities. The teacher refrains from giving excessive directions (too much direction from the teacher usually results in apathetic conformity, defiance, scapegoating, or withdrawal).
70	Benefits to the Learner Competition with self is stressed over competition with others, and cooperation with others becomes an acceptable peer learning activity. The learner feels a sense of freedom from the threat of failure. The learning task falls within the learner’s range of challenge – that area where the task is neither too easy nor too difficult and the probability for success for good, but not certain.
71	Benefits to the Learner There are opportunities for novel and stimulating learning experiences. Some purposes, objectives, and expectations are defined in behavioral terms which clarity the learning task. Progress depends on how the learner perceives (through reinforcement or encouragement) the appropriateness of his or her efforts to accomplish the learning objectives.
72	Benefits to the Learner The learner receives feedback through the facility he/she has gained in self-evaluation. Learning is generalized to other life situations (most likely to occur when the learner has achieved the intrinsic reward of feeling a sense of self-satisfaction.) This system can prevent the “aiming at the middle” approach to teaching.
73	To Curve or Not to Curve The most common definition of “To Curve” means that a certain percentage of students earn each grade A – F. Curving is seen as introducing a dynamic that is harmful to learning. Competition in a curved grading system does not produce better learning – it encourages students to keep others from learning. Standards are often lowered to meet the percentage needs of the curve: 10% must be A’s even if A = 76%.
74	The Practical Aspects of Grading Separate comment on student work from grading. Ask the following questions: Why am I assigning a grade to this? Will the feedback be worth the time? Could I do something else instead? Could I just offer credit? Could I give comments by no grade? Could I fold this work into a larger work? Could I include it in a portfolio? Do all students need a grade?
75	Alternatives to Written Comments Do the commenting during class – student work is presented on overheads. “If I don’t get to your overhead and you want feedback, see me.” Assignments are checked in as completed – returned to be kept in a portfolio where one, two or three will be chosen to be revised, typed and handed in with the portfolio later on.
76	Do all My Students Need a Grade Much of the preparatory work students do – homework, drafts, practices does not need a grade unless the student wants one. An unofficial grade can be given to tell them where their work stands – otherwise comments in class or premade comment sheets or brief comments can be given.
77	Use Only As Many Grade Levels as You Need The traditional grading system of grades with pluses and minuses is a thirteen level system. Do you need that many options? Use the lowest number of grading levels consonant with your purpose and with student learning. Examples: Homework 10 5 0 Papers Plus Check Minus Develop the criteria for the grade to fit the type of assignment.
78	Comments Require students to do something with the comments you give them. Comments are given to improve learning, reinforce good practice, develop metacognition or send a message of concern. Too many comments get lost and do nothing to improve learning. Poor timing reduces impact – look for teachable moments – one-to-one can be powerful.
79	Comments Can Be Orally Recorded Separate local level comments – grammar, spelling – from global level content and organization. Do not do the editing for the students – indicated that errors exist – note the type and nature and ask them to fix them – suggest using the writing center – otherwise they are not likely to learn from their errors. (Carol Santa 2002 NSCI Conference)
80	What If There are Lots of Problems With a Student’s Work? Focus on the one that must be dealt with first. Analogy If you are getting a tennis lesson on your serve – the pro will ignore other problems and just focus on the serve.
81	Do Not Waste Time on Careless Student Work Give the student a checklist that they must complete and attach to the front of each assignment. The checklist reflects the expectations of the assignment. If all of the items are not check, the paper will be not be graded. If items are checked falsely, the paper will not be graded.
82	Do Not Waste Time on Careless Student Work If the student fails to complete the checklist, papers can be returned to be fixed and graded without penalty. Papers can be returned to fixed and graded with a penalty. Papers can be returned and not graded – meaning a zero (0). Make clear the basic expectations – for example less than four spelling errors or grammar errors – typed, double-spaced, etc. Stop reading as soon as the basics are not met.
83	Use What the Students Know Require the students to attach a half sheet evaluation of their assignment in which they indicate the quality of their work, the advice they would give themselves to improve, what are the strongest and weakest points of the paper or assignment. If the students know what is wrong the instructor does not have to tell them – just confirm it. This saves a lot of time.
84	Delegate the Work Is there anyone else that can competently grade some of your papers, assignments or test? Can the students grade each others work – the supreme court says they can. Can you use peer review with a checklist to guide them for second drafts – after you have made the important suggestion in the first go around – the second draft reading might be more of a proof reading.
85	Use Technology to Save Time and Enhance Results Develop boilerplate of comments that can be pre-made, copied and attached to the papers. Develop a handout or put on your website the suggestions for dealing with common problems and refer the students to the information. Use audio tapes to record comments – this just saves time. Use email or bulletin boards to let students look at models of good work or to respond to other students work. Be available – phone, email, in person for questions – this may save a lot of writing comments later.
86	Use Technology to Save Time and Enhance Results Develop boilerplate of comments that can be pre-made, copied and attached to the papers. Develop a handout or put on your website the suggestions for dealing with common problems and refer the students to the information. Use audio tapes to record comments – this just saves time. Use email or bulletin boards to let students look at models of good work or to respond to other students work.
87	Use Technology to Save Time and Enhance Results Be available – phone, email, in person for questions – this may save a lot of writing comments later. Use grading systems and PTA to demonstrate student improvement. As you implement new grading (or teaching) strategies, keep records of the performance level of students as compared to previous student groups. This kind of assessment is what accrediting agencies are looking for.